THE ELEMENTS OF ISLAM
(Excerpts Only)

By: Shaykh Fadhlalla Haeri

Chapter 4
The History and Development of The Religion

And thus We have made you a medium [just] nation that you may be the bearers of witness to people and that the Apostle may be a bearer of witness to you ...

Qur`an 2:143

As Islam spread geographically during the Prophet's life and the next two generations, its fervor and light were so powerfully transformative that it was readily embraced. There was little theological discussion or formulation other than the acceptance of the Qur`an and following the prophetic footsteps in behavior and practice.

The nature and habits of the people who originally embraced Islam, as well as those who soon followed, were basically simple. Their purity and intact primal qualities were such that when they heard the message of the Qur`an and Islam, they recognized the truth reflected in the teachings. ...

Within a hundred years of the Prophet's death records of what he said and did were being made with the names of the persons who transmitted them so as to ensure accurate and reliable chains of human reference. ...

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What emerged as Sufism within three hundred years of the Prophet Muhammad was basically a renewing and corrective movement to safeguard the essence and spirit of Islam in the face of growing 'establishment' Muslims. Found mostly among Sunnis, the instructional objective of the Sufi networks was to highlight the need for personal purification, constant awareness and self-knowledge, in order to attain gnosis and knowledge of God. A similar stream of Sufi practices called 'Irfan emerged among the Shi`is and other minority sects.

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First-Century Muslims

Most of the Prophet's companions spared no effort to master the Din of Islam. During the last two years of his life several hundred people had memorized the Qur`an and many more could quote numerous prophetic sayings and traditions.

The importance of language for the Arabs was such that the highest merit and prestige was attached to memorizing and repeating the prophetic teaching in its original form. It was a matter of pride for the Companions and those following them to be able to quote the appropriate verse of the Qur`an or a tradition in order to clarify a certain issue of behavior or a matter of worship.

The light of the Prophet's transmission was such that most people who came into contact with him would be saturated by the clarity of his message and the radiance of his presence. Those who came to him with doubts and questions found their uncertainties exchanged for confirmation and confidence. Many of these people were transformed by their commitment to Islam, and it was this transformative element in Islam that engendered the rapid growth and spread of the Din.

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The way that the people of Medina (most of whom were Companions of the Prophet) acted and interacted during the time of 'Umar (the peak in early Muslim dynamic and creative spread) was to become the model towards which most Muslims look as epitomizing the ideal committed community. The close Companions of the Prophet acted according to their knowledge of the Qur`an and their familiarity with the behavioral standards he established. Minor differences in interpretation did not cause major divergences, ...

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Gathering and Recording the Teachings

From the early days after the Prophet, Muslims began study and interpret the Qur`an and prophetic way (Sunnah). Traditions (Hadith) which recorded what the Prophet said and did were collected, memorized and referred to as source material for the basic obligations of Muslims, which came to be called the Pillars of Islam (see Chapter 1).

The Qur`an

This is the Book; there is no doubt in it, a guide for those who are precautiously aware.

Qur`an 2:2

When the Prophet died there were known to have been at least seven different readings of the Qur`an in the main tribal or regional dialects. ...

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Hadith

They desire to put out the light of Allah with their mouths, but Allah will perfect His light, even though the disbelievers may be averse.

Qur`an 61:8

With the skills of accurate memorization so deeply ingrained in Arab culture, many of the Prophet's Companions committed his sayings to memory and passed them on to other converts. The Prophet himself ensured that his own utterances were kept distinct from the Qur`an and from those sayings that were inspired directly by Allah (called Hadith Qudsi, sacred or divine tradition).

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Schools of Law

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Abu Hanifa (699-767) placed the emphasis on opinions reached by individual reasoning, and used analogy extensively. His broad interpretations displayed a flexibility that increased the appeal of his jurisprudence, particularly to rulers who sought easy justifications for their actions. He was by profession a trader in silk in Kufa, where he also taught, and the school of law that now bears his name claims the largest number of Sunni adherents.

Malik (715-795) worked on the assumption that the ways of the elders of Medina (the Companions of the Prophet and their descendants) should be uncorrupted either by the new converts or tribal ways, or by the influence of the subsequently developed garrison towns. The practice of Medina was the way of Muhammad and from this an idealized model of Medina emerged.

it was Al-Shafi`i (767-820) who brought greater clarity to the different bases for legal decisions. He regarded of paramount importance all the general principles as well as the specific commandments in the Qur`an. Equally important were the prophetic practices recorded in the Hadith, which he regarded as more important than the cumulative practices of the communities. For him the way of the Prophet was the manifestation of God's will, amply confirming or elaborating on the Qur`anic injunctions. The words and deeds of the Prophet drew out the implications and provisions of the Qur`an, and thus the Sunnah complemented the Qur`an.

Ibn Hanbal (d.855), to whom the Hanbali school is attributed, used the foundation of Al-Shafi`i for the development of his line of thought. He emphasized methods of choosing Hadith, even preferring a weak Hadith over a strong analogy.

The principles of legal reasoning (the roots of fiqh) grew into an important arena of scholarship as they dealt with the place of Hadith and the legitimacy of such traditions, as well as the limits and method of ijtihad. Shi`i Muslim groups developed their own system of law and moral precepts, which came to be called the Ja`fari school of law, so named after its foremost exponent, the sixth Shi`i Imam Ja`far As-Sadiq (d.765) who was the greatest teacher of his time in Medina. Both Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik were among those, said to number four thousand, who benefited from his teachings. Ja`fari fiqh regarded consensus as valid only if the opinion of the Imam was included. The line of development in Shi`i jurisprudence was more direct because of the belief that the Imams were infallible. The Imams simply reflected and therefore reproduced the original prophetic teaching in different circumstances over a period of time. As a result of this advantage, they did not need to resort to analogy (which indeed later became unacceptable in Shi`i theology) nor was much importance attached to consensus. They considered `Ali and the Ahl al-Bayt (the household of the Prophet) to be the best interpreters of the Qur`an and prophetic teachings. Thus the Shi`i school is based entirely on traditions and teachings from the twelve Imams, each of whom was appointed by his predecessor, starting from `Ali Ibn Abi Talib and therefore the Prophet himself The last Imam entered occultation, and his return is awaited as the savior.

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Theology and Philosophy

While the teaching of fiqh developed in the arena of mosques and madrasahs, serious and profound enquiry in theology and philosophy developed alongside it. New issues begged new solutions, and in response to the debate among scholars and thinkers a framework of theology and philosophical enquiry gradually evolved. Crucial issues such as predestination versus free will, the nature of the Qur`anic text (whether it was a creation of God in essence only or in sound and letters), and others pertaining to reincarnation and the hereafter were debated, and the methodology used gave rise to the science of dialectical theology or Kalam.

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Sunni-Shi'i Relationships

One of the most important socio-political issues in life is that of leadership, its quality, authority and method of appointment. The Qur`an and the prophetic teachings emphasize obedience to Allah, His Prophet and the upright 'people of authority'. No Muslim disagrees with this. It is only with the method of legitimizing a 'person of authority' that differences occur and around which the Sunni and Shi'i theologies diverge.

During the early centuries of Islam the terms Sunni and Shi'i meant different things at different times, as did many other names designating various schools of thought. It was not until the eleventh and twelfth centuries that the current pattern of usage stabilized.

Sunni essentially means one who follows the Sunnah, which is the desired aim of every sincere Muslim. It has come to mean, however, those Muslims who follow the Sunnah and Jama'ah, that is, the way of Muhammad and the consensual majority of Muslims. The term was first adopted by a faction of Muslims who had accepted Abbasid rule, stressing the importance of its continuity with the Marwani past. It was well over a century after Muhammad that the term Sunni began to be widely used to distinguish between the largest common group (which is the literal meaning of Jama'ah) and the Shi'i, that is, those who were loyal to `Ali's party. It also implied those who strictly and exclusively referred to the Hadith as opposed to engaging in theological and philosophical discourse as a means of gaining guidance. In latter-day usage Sunni has become synonymous with 'orthodox', though it would be more accurate to employ the term Jama'ah to signify the popular mainstream.

In the early years after the Prophet's death the term Shi`i meant 'follower' or 'partisan', with particular reference to `Ali. The Shi'as believe that the Prophet had categorically appointed `Ali Ibn Abi Talib as his successor at the gathering of Ghadir Khum. `Ali in turn nominated as his successor his eldest son Hasan, who then nominated his brother Husayn and so on through another ten generations of the Prophet's descendants. Although the Sunnis all acknowledge the event at Ghadir Khum, they take the Prophet's message as merely an acknowledgement of `Ali's merit rather than a definite political appointment.

In the end, however, the successor to the Prophet was elected by a group of Medinan elders (while the Prophet was being buried). The first Muslim ruler (later to be called Caliph) was Abu Bakr, the Prophet's father-in-law and a close and loyal Companion. Though `Ali and his followers made occasional protests, they did not contest or revolt against the early Caliphs. `Ali himself remained loyal to the cause of Islam and served wherever and whenever he could alongside his predecessors. Upon the demise of the third Caliph, however, `Ali was elected the fourth.

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The general Sunni stance on leadership was that peace under an unjust ruler was better than anarchy under a just one. For the Shi`i, justice in the government of human affairs could not grow if the ruler did not reflect the Prophet. The ruler had the status of a prophetic figure who, in the Prophet's absence, should be the ultimate spiritual and temporal authority. The prophetic mantle was taken up by the Sufis in the person of their Shaykhs or teachers. This fact is significant because while most Sufis were Sunni, the necessity for enlightened leadership reflects the essential nature of transmission of knowledge and guidance. Hence the Shi`is turned to their Imams.

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Prominent Sects

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Sufism and Enlightenment

Sufism or tasawwuf most probably derives its name from either the word suf, meaning wool, which was used to make the modest robes word by the early Companions of the Prophet, or from the root word safa, meaning purity. It is sometimes referred to as Islamic mysticism and the heart or spirit of Islam. [Also see, The Elements of Sufism]

The Prophet's life and that of many of his Companions and those who followed him was based on a unified cosmology of being, They saw the interconnectedness of the seen and the unseen, the outer and the inner, reason and beyond reason. No Muslim sought a 'mystical' way of life per se. What they sought was the Essence and Source of creation. If there were any mystery or mystical aspects to life, they were to be left as such, until they were unveiled from the unseen. The duty of humankind was to concern themselves with what was existentially important and remain in a constant state of awareness, submission to and love for the Creator.

The teachings of the Sufis derive from the Qur`an and and Sunnah. The Qur`an constantly warns against accumulation in this world and attachment to worldly possessions, Allah reminds humanity to reflect and meditate upon the natural world and the transient nature of all forms of existence. We are encouraged to visit the ruins of past great civilizations to reflect upon what is left of their greatness. Remembrance of the next life and preferring it to this life is repeatedly enjoined in the Qur`an.

The qualities of personal piety, perpetual remembrance, prayer and abandonment that formed the basis of Islam were all the more focused on by the Sufis through example. The Caliph 'Umar was known to have had no possessions other than what was in his immediate use. He often slept in the mosque, with a mud brick under his head. Salman Al-Farsi was at that time appointed governor of a province but his only possession was a small vessel from which to drink water. The majority of the first and second generation Muslims lived a life of piety, outer asceticism, generosity, courage, inner purity and light.

By the end of the first century we find Muslim rulers mostly concerned with governing, acquiring and establishing dynastic rule and, in many instances, emulating their predecessors, the Byzantines and Sassanian Imperials, whose towns and cities they had conquered. In a way this extreme worldly orientation caused the original seeds of tasawwuf to sprout. Hasan Al-Basri, who is supposed to have derived much of his knowledge and teachings from Imam `Ali, was regarded as one of the earliest Sufis, without necessarily having been named as such during his life because the term 'Sufi' did not come into common use until much later. In his teachings he warned his students about the attractions, dangers and veils of the material world, reflecting what `Ali had said: 'Asceticism is not that you should not own anything, but that nothing should own you.'

By the early eighth century an increasing number of people had chosen a way of life based on asceticism, meditative and other ritualistic practices, such as the chanting of the name of God (Dhikr) as a means of enhancing remembrance of Allah and maintaining self-awareness.

Mirroring the development, study and application of the legalistic and theological aspects of Islam, there was an equal rise in the practices of inner awareness, purification and self-knowledge. By the ninth century a large body of teachings from the traditions and Sunnah had been gathered which emphasized the importance of gaining knowledge of the self in order for higher and more subtle knowledge to become accessible.

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During the twentieth century despite not being highly organized the Sufi movements have spread widely, and their subtle influence is present throughout Muslim lands and increasingly in the West. 'Ulama have traditionally sought outer uniformity while experiencing inner disunity, whereas the Sufis seek inner unity while tolerating outer differences.

The Sufis perfected ways of applying the teachings of Islam to the world of inner experience in a manner that was appropriate to their respective cultural climates. The sciences of the self which each group or brotherhood of Sufis developed came to be known as a Tariqah (literally, a 'way' or 'path'). Tariqah was an inner counterpoint to the Shari'ah, the combined application of which could lead to the realization of Haqiqah (Truth), that is, knowledge of God. in a tradition attributed to the Prophet, he says: 'Shari`ah is my words, Tariqah is my deeds, and Haqiqah is my inner state.' The root word of Shari`ah means path, way or waterspring; it implies outer bounds and laws. Tariqah is the passage, the movement and actual application of the teachings, injunctions and boundaries, like a car moving on the road towards its destination. Haqiqah is the Truth, being, becoming or arriving at the destined city. Recognizing the mapped road is adhering to the Shari`ah; traveling along it is Tariqah; and Haqiqah is arriving at the city of knowledge – realization.